The Historical Relationship between Vietnam and China
“What is the historical relationship between Vietnam and China?”
According to Professor Kathlene Baldanza of Penn State University: “It’s complicated.”
That answer might seem evasive at first glance, but as her richly illustrated lecture shows, the ties between these two neighbors are anything but simple. They span millennia, and oscillate between conquest and independence, subjugation and diplomacy, resistance and adaptation.
Vietnam’s story begins not with texts, but with bronze. The Đông Sơn culture (6th century BCE–2nd century CE), known for its drums and metalwork, reveals a sophisticated society that existed independently of China’s early empires. Artifacts from this era—like miniature drums and seated figures—underscore a local tradition that predates written history in the region.
Written records about Vietnamese culture first appear in Chinese sources. There are no surviving Vietnamese writings from before the 11th century CE. This points to one of the lecture’s first insights: early Vietnam, though deeply influenced by China, developed on its own terms—and its voice was often mediated through Chinese documentation.
China's Han dynasty conquered the kingdom of Nam Việt in 111 BCE, placing the Red River Delta under imperial rule. But Vietnam’s history is as much about resistance as it is about control. The Trưng Sisters' rebellion (39–43 CE) remains one of the most iconic episodes of defiance. Later, the fall of China’s Tang dynasty opened space for Vietnam’s independence: in 936, Ngô Quyền declared the autonomous state of Đại Việt after defeating Chinese forces at the Bạch Đằng River.
Throughout these centuries, Chinese dynasties (from Han to Yuan to Ming) sought to reclaim or control northern Vietnam. But they repeatedly encountered fierce resistance—culminating in events like the Mongol invasions during the 13th century, decisively repelled by Trần Hưng Đạo in the famous 1288 Bạch Đằng River battle.
Even after gaining independence, Vietnam maintained a tributary relationship with China. Formal diplomacy was hierarchical: Vietnam sent envoys to the Chinese capital, offering gifts and receiving seals, calendars, and robes that affirmed the legitimacy of the Vietnamese emperor. Though symbolic, these gestures carried real political weight. Chinese dynasties occasionally supported Vietnamese royalty during succession crises—and at times expected Vietnam’s cooperation on border issues.
Vietnam also absorbed a great deal from China: Confucian law codes, Buddhist practices, classical language, civil examinations, and even styles of dress and administration. The Lê dynasty, in particular, embraced Confucian statecraft and expanded Vietnam southward, including the military conquest of Champa in the 1470s.
Language is a powerful testament to cultural entanglement. Today, an estimated 30% to 80% of Vietnamese vocabulary comes from Chinese. This stems from both early cultural proximity and the prolonged use of Classical Chinese (Hán) as the written language of state.
By around 1100 CE, the Vietnamese had also developed chữ Nôm—a script that used modified Chinese characters to write the vernacular Vietnamese language. For centuries, educated Vietnamese would toggle between speaking Vietnamese and writing in either Hán or Nôm. A masterpiece like Nguyễn Du’s Tale of Kiều was composed in Nôm, reflecting both the influence and adaptation of Chinese literary forms.
In the 19th century, French colonization disrupted the historical dynamic. The Sino-French War (1884–1885) resulted in China recognizing the French protectorate over Vietnam. From this point onward, France—not China—would dominate Vietnam’s political fate. The transition from classical Chinese education to French colonial curricula also marked a turning point: the Romanized script Quốc ngữ gradually replaced Chinese-based scripts, aligning with broader cultural shifts.
The 20th century brought fresh complications. In 1950, the People’s Republic of China was the first to recognize Hồ Chí Minh’s government, a move that forced other Communist countries to follow suit. Yet less than three decades later, in 1979, China and Vietnam were at war over Vietnam’s invasion of Cambodia and the status of Chinese residents in Vietnam.
Today, the historical relationship remains fraught. On one hand, Vietnam and China share deep cultural, political, and economic ties. On the other hand, territorial disputes—especially in the South China Sea—and environmental tensions over dams on the Mekong River remind us that geography binds, but does not always unify.
Professor Baldanza’s lecture does not offer a simple narrative. Instead, it challenges viewers to appreciate the deep continuities and persistent fractures that define Vietnam–China relations. Through conquest and resistance, diplomacy and war, cultural borrowing and local reinvention, the two nations remain locked in a relationship that is, quite literally, historical—and ongoing.
Watch the full lecture here: The Historical Relationship between Vietnam and China – Video by Professor Kathlene Baldanza
Download the presentation slides here: The Historical Relationship between Vietnam and China – PDF Slides